There have been several models of migration to the New World (Human migration into the Americas) proposed by various academic communities. The question of how, when and why humans (Paleo-Indians The Lithic peoples or Paleo-Indians, are the earliest known humans of the Americas. The period's name derives from the appearance of "lithic flaked" stone tools) first entered the Americas The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World, comprising the continents of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions. America may be ambiguous in English, as it is more commonly used to refer to the United States of America. The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total is of intense interest to archaeologists Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of past human societies, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data which they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes. Due to the fact that archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be and anthropologists Anthropology is the study of humanity. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, the humanities, and social sciences. The term "anthropology", pronounced /ænθrɵˈpɒlədʒi/, is from the Greek ἄνθρωπος, anthrōpos, "human", and -λογία, -logia, "discourse" or "study", and was first, and has been a subject of heated debate for centuries. Current understanding of human migration into the Americas derives from advances in four integrated disciplines: archeology Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of past human societies, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data which they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes. Due to the fact that archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be, physical anthropology Biological anthropology is the branch of anthropology that studies, in the context of other primates, the development of the human species. Biological anthropology incorporates bio-cultural studies of human diversity, in time and space; the ancestry of the human species; and the comparative anatomy, behavior, history, and ecology, of historic and, DNA analysis Genetic Testing : Gene tests , the newest and most sophisticated of the techniques used to test for genetic disorders, involve direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. Other genetic tests include biochemical tests for such gene products as enzymes and other proteins and for microscopic examination of stained or fluorescent chromosomes and linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language. Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure and the study of meaning (semantics and pragmatics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words.

While there is general agreement that America was first settled from Asia by people who migrated across Beringia The Bering land bridge was a land bridge roughly 1,000 miles north to south at its greatest extent, which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia at various times during the Pleistocene ice ages. It was not glaciated because snowfall was extremely light due to the southwesterly winds from the Pacific Ocean having lost their moisture over the, the pattern of migration, its timing, and the place of origin in Asia of the peoples who migrated to the Americas remains unclear.^[2] In recent years researchers have sought to use familiar tools to validate or reject established theories like Clovis first The Clovis culture is a prehistoric Paleo-Indian culture that first appears 11,500 RCYBP (radiocarbon years before present), at the end of the last glacial period, characterized by the manufacture of "Clovis points" and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists' most precise determinations at present suggest that this radiocarbon. As new discoveries come to light, past hypotheses are reevaluated and new theories constructed. The archeological evidence suggest that Paleo-Indians' first "widespread" habitation of the Americas occurred during the end of the last glacial period The last glacial period was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age occurring during the last years of the Pleistocene, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum The Late Glacial Maximum is defined primarily by climates in the northern hemisphere warming substantially, causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 25,000-13,000 years before the present). It is at this time that human populations, previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum, around 16,500–13,000 years ago.^[3]

Understanding the debate

The chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 15,000 – 17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants.^[4][5] The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at a much earlier date, possibly 21,000–40,000 years ago,^[6][7] with a much later mass secondary wave of immigrants.^[8][9][10] However, other theories propose early migration from Europe, while supporting evidence for separate origins for "now-extinct" populations may exist.^[11]

One factor fueling the debate is the discontinuity of archaeological Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of past human societies, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data which they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes. Due to the fact that archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be evidence between North North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the southeast and South America South America is the southern continent of America, situated in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest Paleo-Indian sites. A roughly uniform techno-complex pattern known as Clovis The Clovis culture is a prehistoric Paleo-Indian culture that first appears 11,500 RCYBP (radiocarbon years before present), at the end of the last glacial period, characterized by the manufacture of "Clovis points" and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists' most precise determinations at present suggest that this radiocarbon appears in North and Central American Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. Central America is considered to be part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, excluding the southern portions of Panama sites from at least 13,500 years ago onwards.^[12] South American sites of equal antiquity do not share the same consistency and exhibit more diverse cultural patterns. Thus, archaeologists conclude that the "Clovis-first", and Paleo-Indian time frame do not adequately explain complex lithic stage tools appearing in South America. Some theorists seek to develop a colonization model that integrates both North and South American archaeological records.

Indigenous Amerindian genetic studies have concluded that the "colonizing founders" of the Americas emerged from a single-source ancestral population that evolved in isolation, likely in Beringia The Bering land bridge was a land bridge roughly 1,000 miles north to south at its greatest extent, which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia at various times during the Pleistocene ice ages. It was not glaciated because snowfall was extremely light due to the southwesterly winds from the Pacific Ocean having lost their moisture over the.^[14][15] The isolation in Beringia might have lasted 10,000–20,000 years.^[16][17][18] Age estimates based on Y-chromosome micro-satellite place diversity of the American Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA) In human genetics Haplogroup Q1a3a is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Haplogroup Q1a3a is a subclade of Haplogroup Q. Haplogroup Q1a3a was previously known as Haplogroup Q3 at around 10,000 to 15,000 years ago.^[19][20] This does not address if there were any previous failed colonization attempts by other genetic groups, as genetic testing can only address current population ancestral heritage.^[20]

Migrants from northeastern Asia could have walked to Alaska with relative ease when Beringia was above sea level. But traveling south from Alaska to the rest of North America may have posed significant challenges. The two main possible routes proposed south for human migration are: down the Pacific coast Categories: Landforms of the Pacific Ocean | Pacific Ocean | Coasts or by way of an interior passage (Mackenzie Corridor) along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains are a major mountain range in western North America. The North American Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles (4,830 km) from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the southwestern United States. The range's highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet (4,401.^[17] When the Laurentide The Laurentide Ice Sheet was a massive sheet of ice that covered hundreds of thousands of square miles, including most of Canada and a large portion of the northern United States, between c. 95,000 and c. 20,000 years before the present day. Its southern margin included the modern sites of New York City and Chicago, and then followed quite and Cordilleran ice sheets were at their maximum extent, both routes were likely impassable. The Cordilleran sheet reached across to the Pacific shore in the west, and its eastern edge abutted the Laurentide, near the present border between British Columbia and Alberta. Geological evidence suggests the Pacific coastal route was open for overland travel before 23,000 years ago and after 15,000 years ago. During the coldest millennia of the last ice age, roughly 23,000 to 19,000 years ago, lobes of glaciers A glacier is a perennial mass of ice which moves over land. A glacier forms in locations where the mass accumulation of snow and ice exceeds ablation over many years. The word glacier comes from French via the Vulgar Latin glacia, and ultimately from Latin glacies meaning ice. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology hundreds of kilometers wide flowed down to the sea.^[15] Deep crevasses scarred their surfaces, making travel across them dangerous. Even if people traveled by boat—a claim for which there is currently no direct archaeological evidence as sea level rise has hidden the old coast line — the journey would have been difficult with abundant icebergs An iceberg is a large piece of ice from freshwater that has broken off from a snow-formed glacier or ice shelf and is floating in open water. It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice. Alternatively, it may come to rest on the seabed in shallower water, causing ice scour or becoming an ice island in the water. Around 15,000 to 13,000 years ago the coast was presumed ice-free. Additionally, by this time the climate had warmed, and lands were covered in grass and trees. Early Paleo-Indian The Lithic peoples or Paleo-Indians, are the earliest known humans of the Americas. The period's name derives from the appearance of "lithic flaked" stone tools groups could have readily replenished their food supplies, repaired clothing and tents, and replaced broken or lost tools.^[15]

Coastal or watercraft theories have broad implications; one being that Paleo-Indians in North America may not have been purely terrestrial "big-game hunters", but instead were already adapted to maritime or semi-maritime lifestyles.^[10] Additionally, it is possible that "Beringian" (western Alaskan) or European groups migrated into the northern interior and coastlines only to meet their demise during the last glacial maximum The Last Glacial Maximum refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glacial period, approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. It is followed by the Late Glacial Maximum, approximately 20,000 years ago,^[21] leaving evidence of occupation in specific localized areas. However they would not be considered a founding population In population genetics, the founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. It was first fully outlined by Ernst Mayr in 1952, using existing theoretical work by those such as Sewall Wright. As a result of the loss of genetic variation,, unless they had managed to migrate south, populate and survive the coldest part of the last ice-age.^[22]

Timeline of archeological, geological and genetic evidence

Genetics

Indigenous Amerindian genetics primarily focus on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.^[58] Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.^[59] AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.^[59]

The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.^[20][60][61] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous Amerindian populations.^[60]

Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 15, 000 to 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the small founding population.^[16][20][22] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.^[62] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.^[47][63][64] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.^[65][66]

Land bridge theory

Also known as the Bering Strait Theory or Beringia theory, the Land Bridge theory has been widely accepted since the 1930s. This model of migration into the New World proposes that people migrated from Siberia into Alaska, tracking big game animal herds. They were able to cross between the two continents by a land bridge called the Bering Land Bridge, which spanned what is now the Bering Strait, during the Wisconsin glaciation, the last major stage of the Pleistocene beginning 50,000 years ago and ending some 10,000 years ago, when ocean levels were 60 metres (200 ft) lower than today. This information is gathered using oxygen isotope records from deep-sea cores. An exposed land bridge that was at least 1,000 miles wide existed between Siberia and the western coast of Alaska. In the "short chronology" version, from the archaeological evidence gathered, it was concluded that this culture of big game hunters crossed the Bering Strait at least 12,000 years ago and could have eventually reached the southern tip of South America by 11,000 years ago.

Synopsis

At some point during the last Ice Age, about 17,000 years ago, as the ice sheets advanced and sea levels fell, people first migrated from the Eurasian landmass to the Americas. These nomadic hunters were following game herds from Siberia across what is today the Bering Strait into Alaska, and then gradually spread southward. Based upon the distribution of Amerind languages and language families, a movement of tribes along the Rocky Mountain foothills and eastward across the Great Plains to the Atlantic seaboard is assumed to have occurred at least some 13,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Clovis culture

This big game-hunting culture has been labeled the Clovis culture, and is primarily identified with fluted projectile points. The culture received its name from artifacts found near Clovis, New Mexico, the first evidence of this tool complex, excavated in 1932. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and appeared in South America. The culture is identified by distinctive "Clovis point", a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute by which it was inserted into a shaft; it could then be removed from the shaft for traveling. This flute is one characteristic that defines the Clovis point complex.

Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (before present). This evidence suggests that the culture flowered somewhat later and for a shorter period of time than previously believed. Michael R. Waters of Texas A&M University in College Station and Thomas W. Stafford Jr., proprietor of a private-sector laboratory in Lafayette, Colorado and an expert in radiocarbon dating attempted to determine the dates of the Clovis period. The heyday of Clovis technology has typically been set between 11,500 and 10,900 radiocarbon years B.P. (The radiocarbon calibration is disputed for this period, but the widely used IntCal04 calibration puts the dates at 13,300 to 12,800 calendar years B.P.). In a controversial move, Waters and Stafford conclude that no fewer than 11 of the 22 Clovis sites with radiocarbon dates are "problematic" and should be disregarded—including the type site in Clovis, New Mexico. They argue that the datable samples could have been contaminated by earlier material. This contention was received as highly controversial by many in the archaeological community.

Clovis-type artifacts seem to disappear from the archaeological record after the hypothesized Younger Dryas impact event roughly 12,900 years before the present. The effects of the event possibly caused a decline in post-Clovis human populations and shifts in culture and behavior patterns.^[67]

Problems with Clovis migration models

Significant problems arise with the Clovis migration model. If Clovis people radiated south after entering the New World and eventually reached the southern tip of South America by 11,000 years ago, this leaves only a short time span to populate the entire hemisphere.^{[citation needed]} Another complication for the Clovis-only theory arose in 1997, when a panel of authorities inspected the Monte Verde site in Chile, concluding that the radiocarbon evidence predates Clovis sites in the North American Midwest by at least 1,000 years. This supports the theory of a primary coastal migration route that moved south along the coastline faster than those that migrated inland into the central areas of the Americas. Many excavations have uncovered evidence that subsistence patterns of early Americans included foods such as turtles, shellfish, and tubers. This is quite a change of diet from the big game mammoths, long-horn bison, horse, and camels that early Clovis hunters apparently followed east into the New World.

At the Topper archaeological site (located along the banks of the Savannah River near Allendale, South Carolina) investigated by University of South Carolina archaeologist Dr. Albert Goodyear, charcoal material recovered in association with purported human artifacts returned radiocarbon dates of up to 50,000 years BP. This would indicate the presence of humans well before the last glacial period. Nevertheless, considerable doubt over the validity of these findings has been raised by many other researchers, and the pre-Clovis Topper dates remain controversial.

Pre-Clovis dates have been claimed for several sites in South America, but these early dates have yet to be verified unequivocally.

Recent discoveries of human coprolites (fossilized feces) found deeply buried in an Oregon cave indicate the presence of humans in North America as much as 1,200 years prior to the Clovis culture.^[68]

Watercraft migration theories

Earlier finds have led to a pre-Clovis culture theory encompassing different migration models with an expanded chronology to supersede the "Clovis-first" theory.

Pacific coastal models

Pacific models propose that people reached the Americas via water travel, following coastlines from northeast Asia into the Americas. Coastlines are unusually productive environments because they provide humans with access to a diverse array of plants and animals from both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. While not exclusive of land-based migrations, the Pacific 'coastal migration theory' helps explain how early colonists reached areas extremely distant from the Bering Strait region, including sites such as Monte Verde in southern Chile and Taima-Taima in western Venezuela. Two cultural components were discovered at Monte Verde near the Pacific Coast of Chile. The youngest layer is radiocarbon dated at 12,500 radiocarbon years (~14,000 cal BP)^{[citation needed]} and has produced the remains of several types of seaweeds collected from coastal habitats. The older and more controversial component may date back as far as 33,000 years, but few scholars currently accept this very early component.^{[citation needed]}

Other coastal models, dealing specifically with the peopling of the Pacific Northwest and California coasts, have been advocated by archaeologists Knut Fladmark, Roy Carlson, James Dixon, Jon Erlandson, Ruth Gruhn, and Daryl Fedje. In a 2007 article in the Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Erlandson and his colleagues proposed a corollary to the coastal migration theory—the kelp highway hypothesis—arguing that productive kelp forests supporting similar suites of plants and animals would have existed near the end of the Pleistocene around much of the Pacific Rim from Japan to Beringia, the Pacific Northwest, and California, as well as the Andean Coast of South America. Once the coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia had deglaciated about 16,000 years ago, these kelp forest (along with estuarine, mangrove, and coral reef) habitats would have provided an ecologically similar migration corridor, entirely at sea level, and essentially unobstructed.

Australia/Oceania model

As early as 1787 Chilean naturalist Juan Ignacio Molina mentioned the possibility of South America being populated from south Asia through the "infinite island chains" of the Pacific while north America could have been populated from Siberia.^[69] Some anthropologists such as Paul Rivet have proposed that peoples of Oceania or southeast Asia crossed the Pacific Ocean and arrived in South America long before the Siberian hunter-gatherers. These hypothetical Pre-Siberian American Aborigines populated much of South America before being nearly exterminated and/or absorbed by the Siberian migrants coming from the north. Some of the theories involve a southward migration from or through Australia and Tasmania, hopping Subantarctic islands and then proceeding along the coast of Antarctica and/or southern ice sheets to the tip of South America sometime during the last glacial maximum.

There have been well-dated stratigraphic studies that point to people entering Australia some 40,000 years ago. At this period Australia was not connected to another continent, which leads to the assumption that it was reached by watercraft. If Australia was reached in this fashion, some reason that the New World could have been reached in the same way. Proponents of this model have pointed to cultural and phenotypical similarities between the Aboriginals of Australia and the Selknam and Yaghan tribes of southern Patagonia. The theory of Australoid migration to the Americas has earned little scientific support as there is no genetic evidence matching indigenous Australians with South American populations. This model is taught in Chilean schools together with the land bridge model^{[citation needed]}.

A recent study claimed that the Mapuche pre-Columbian Araucana chicken came from Polynesia by analysing their DNA; [3] [4] [5] [6] this suggests a more recent contact between the Mapuche and Polynesia. Another recent study has contradicted this claim stating that the DNA found in the chicken bone was closer to post colonial European chickens. [7] [8]

One of the earliest known sites of human occupation in the Americas, Monte Verde, lies within what was later to become Huilliche territory, although there is currently no demonstrated link between the Monte Verde people and the Mapuche.

Southeast Asians: Paleoindians of the Coast

The boat-builders from Southeast Asia may have been one of the earliest groups to reach the shores of North America. One theory suggests people in boats followed the coastline from the Kurile Islands to Alaska down the coasts of North and South America as far as Chile [2 62; 7 54, 57]. The Haida nation on the Queen Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia may have originated from these early Asian mariners between 25,000 and 12,000. Early watercraft migration would also explain the habitation of coastal sites in South America such as Pikimachay Cave in Peru by 20,000 years ago and Monte Verde in Chile by 13,000 years ago [6 30; 8 383].

"'There was boat use in Japan 20,000 years ago,' says Jon Erlandson, a University of Oregon anthropologist. 'The Kurile Islands (north of Japan) are like stepping stones to Beringia,' the then continuous land bridging the Bering Strait. Migrants, he said, could have then skirted the tidewater glaciers in Canada right on down the coast." [7 64]'

Atlantic coastal model

Archaeologists Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradley champion the coastal Atlantic route. Their Solutrean Hypothesis is also based on evidence from the Clovis complex, but instead traces the origins of the Clovis toolmaking style to the Solutrean culture of Ice Age Western Europe. They have hypothesized that Solutrean hunters and fishers, living like Eskimos, may have worked their way along the southern margins of the Atlantic sea ice to North America, getting food, and blubber-oil for heating, by killing fish and seals, hauling out on ice each night. Their argument is based on technological analysis of the similarities between Solutrean and Clovis flint-knapping techniques, and that Clovis sites are generally found in eastern North America and seem to have radiated westward^[70]. Stanford and Bradley are currently working on publishing a book on the Solutrean hypothesis.^{[citation needed]}

Other Atlantic migration proponents include the French archaeologist Remy Cottevieille-Giraudet, who in the 1930s suggested a European Cro-Magnon origin of the Algonquian peoples. In 1963, Emerson Greenman proposed a hypothetical Atlantic migration during the Upper Paleolithic, also citing New World similarities with Solutrean tools as well as art. He suggested that the Beothuk people of Newfoundland, among others, may have been at least partial descendants of that migration. According to a research report on Beothuk DNA published in 2007, "the data do not lend credence to the proposed idea that the Beothuk (specifically, Nonosabasut) were of admixed (European-Native American) descent."^[71]

Problems with evaluating coastal migration models

The coastal migration models provide a different perspective on migration to the New World, but they are not without their own problems. One of the biggest problems is that global sea levels have risen over 100 metres since the end of the last glacial period, and this has submerged the ancient coastlines which maritime people would have followed into the Americas. Finding sites associated with early coastal migrations is extremely difficult—and systematic excavation of any sites found in deeper waters is challenging and expensive. If there was an early pre-Clovis coastal migration, there is always the possibility of a “failed colonization.” Another problem that arises is the lack of hard evidence found for a “long chronology” theory. No sites have yet produced a consistent chronology older than about 12,500 radiocarbon years (~14,500 calendar years)^{[citation needed]}, but South America has still seen only limited research on the possibility of early coastal migrations.

The Dyukhtai of Northeast Asia

Archaeological sites found in Dyukhtai Cave and other sites in the Aldan River valley have yielded remains of a culture that may be a potential Paleoindian ancestor. This culture occupied the region from 35,000-12,000 years ago. The Dyukhtai or similar Northeast Asian cultures may have entered the New World through Beringia and spread into British Columbia [1 140]. It is thought that they pursued Pleistocene mammals such as the giant beaver, goats, elk, ancient reindeer (early caribou), horses, Yukon camels, steppe bison, musk ox, mastodons, and woolly mammoths.

The chief characteristic of the Dyukhtai was their manufacture of microliths or microblades. Microblades are small flakes less than 1 1/4 inches long, with a sharp edge and a "backed" or blunted edge that could be guided with the index finger to sever meat from a carcass. Microblades could also be incorporated into composite tools such as an arrow or sickle. Thousands of microblades have been found at upper Paleolithic Stone Age sites. They have been found north of Mongolia together with projectile points and hand-carved ivory statuettes. The earliest of several sites there has been dated at 45,000 years ago. Microblades appeared in Japan by 20,000 during the LGM when the island was still a peninsula and reachable by land [1 144, 202; 3 189-191].

Microblade manufacture was an important event in human history and its appearance corresponds roughly to the end of the Middle Paleolithic 60,000 years ago. Over 98% of all human history is encompassed by the period of time that began with the appearance of Australopithecus afarensis [e.g. "Lucy] and ended with the manufacture of microblades by lower-upper Stone Age cultures such as the "Dyukhtai".

See also

• Early human migrations
• Dené-Yeniseian languages
• Historical migration
• History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian)
• Paleo-Indians period (Canada)
• Norse colonization of the Americas
• Olmec alternative origin speculations
• Pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theories
• Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories
• Recent African origin of modern humans
• Solutrean hypothesis
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

References

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19. ^ (2003) "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas," (pdf) Maria-Catira Bortolini, Francisco M. Salzano, Mark G. Thomas, Steven Stuart, Selja P. K. Nasanen, Claiton H. D. Bau, Mara H. Hutz, Zulay Layrisse, Maria L. Petzl-Erler, Luiza T. Tsuneto, Kim Hill, Ana M. Hurtado, Dinorah Castro-de-Guerra, Maria M. Torres, Helena Groot, Roman Michalski, Pagbajabyn Nymadawa, Gabriel Bedoya, Neil Bradman, Damian Labuda, Andres Ruiz-Linares. Department of Biology, University College, London; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas, Caracas, Venezuela; Departamento de Gene´tica, Universidade Federal do Parana´, Curitiba, Brazil; 5Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque; 6Laboratorio de Gene´tica Humana, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota´; Victoria Hospital, Prince Albert, Canada; Subassembly of Medical Sciences, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Laboratorio de Gene´tica Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı´n, Colombia; Universite´ de Montreal, Montreal. 73:524-539. Retrieved 2010-01-22
20. ^ ^{a b c d e} (Digitised online by Google books) The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Random House. ISBN 0812971469. http://books.google.ca/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20Journey%20of%20Man&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
21. ^ Dyke, A.S., A. Moore, and L. Robertson, 2003, Deglaciation of North America. Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 1574. (Thirty-two digital maps at 1:7 000 000 scale with accompanying digital chronological database and one poster (two sheets) with full map series.)
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23. ^ Indians in the Americas: the untold story. http://books.google.ca/books?id=Obgdz8auwkMC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=8000+years+ago+in+the+americas&source=bl&ots=c47JAVxZ-Z&sig=KorOEXZ4UJ1DRvakZhjG73wlH0o&hl=en&ei=SBWeSpKvAozTlAfK4vDTDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9#v=onepage&q=8000%20years%20ago%20in%20the%20americas&f=false.
24. ^ The Time of the Buffalo. http://books.google.ca/books?id=xSbrXXh0lWMC&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=buffalo+migrated+from+Asia+to+America&source=bl&ots=_N-hAD1FHi&sig=yqIE-pJLMtT85kpQji9PrDGKWBk&hl=en&ei=u2GdStnpBabFmQepxLW9Aw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
25. ^ "The Bluefish Caves". Minnesota State University. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/bluefishcaves.html.
26. ^ "PLEISTOCENE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE OLD CROW FLATS". Resource Description and Analysis of VNP. http://yukon.taiga.net/vuntutrda/archaeol/pleis.htm.
27. ^ "Palaeo-Indian archaeology". Canadian Studies Program, Canadian Heritage.. http://www.learnersportal.com/CanadaFP/Ancient/per1.html.
28. ^ ^{a b} "The Topper Site in South Carolina". Ohio Archaeological Inventor. http://www.daysknob.com/Topper_A.htm.
29. ^ Archaeology of prehistoric native America: an encyclopedia. http://books.google.ca/books?id=_0u2y_SVnmoC&pg=RA1-PA682&lpg=RA1-PA682&dq=old+crow+caves+debate&source=bl&ots=OQs3QyVT5I&sig=4mAK2XU-uUV6dpJCa7I6hEwtQlQ&hl=en&ei=ul2gSqjjGqif8QaHo6zpDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4#v=onepage&q=old%20crow%20caves%20debate&f=false.
30. ^ Dickason, Olive. Canada's First Nations: A History of the Founding Peoples from the Earliest Times. 2nd edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1997.
31. ^ "Alberta History pre 1800 - Jasper Alberta". AlbertaJasper.com. http://albertajasper.com/Alberta-History-pre-1800.html.
32. ^ "pre glaciology in Alberta". Calgary university. http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/rp/rppdf/e01-030.pdf.
33. ^ Richmond, G.M. and D.S. Fullerton, 1986, "Summation of Quaternary glaciations in the United States of America", in Quaternary Science Reviews, vol. 5, pp. 183-196.
34. ^ "Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders". PubMed Central. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1952074/.
35. ^ ^{a b} "Beginnings to 1500 C.E.". Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/p4/1.
36. ^ Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; Ricardo Kanitz, Roberta Eckert, Ana C.S. Valls, Mauricio R. Bogo, Francisco M. Salzano, David Glenn Smith, Wilson A. Silva, Marco A. Zago, Andrea K. Ribeiro-dos-Santos, Sidney E.B. Santos, Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler, and Sandro L.Bonatto (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics 82 (3): 583–592. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. PMID 18313026.
37. ^ "Vertebrate paleontology and the alleged ice-free corridor: The meat of the matter". ScienceDirect a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V.. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VGS-3VW7XG3-8&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=997406958&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=35352485ac241d4d8759c83f01e4aa74.
38. ^ # Martin, Paul S. (2005): Twilight of the mammoths: Ice Age extinctions and the rewilding of America. University of California Press, Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-23141-4
39. ^ "Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Pennsylvania.". Bradshaw Foundation. http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/meadowcroft.html.
40. ^ ^{a b} "Chilean Field Yields New Clues to Peopling of Americas". The New York Times. By John Noble Wilford. http://www.unl.edu/rhames/monte_verde/monte_verde1.htm.
41. ^ "Cactus Hill Update". Archaeological Institute of America. http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/cactus.html.
42. ^ "Taimataima site". Dr. José R. Oliver. http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/taima-taima-text.html.
43. ^ "Does skull prove that the first Americans came from Europe?". The University of Texas at Austin - Web Central. http://www.utexas.edu/courses/stross/ant322m_files/1stpersons.htm.
44. ^ "Penon Woman (Distrito Federal, Mexico)". The Andaman Association. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text-Penon/text-Penon.htm.
45. ^ George Weber. "Tibito and El Abra sites (Colombia )". The Andaman Association. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text-Tibito/text-Tibito.htm.
46. ^ ^{a b} "Evidence Supports Earlier Date for People in North America". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/04/science/04fossil.html?_r=2&scp=3&sq=&st=nyt&oref=slogin.
47. ^ ^{a b} Ruhlen M (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95 (23): 13994–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994. PMID 9811914. PMC 25007. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9811914.
48. ^ "Worldwide glacier retreat". RealClimate. http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2005/03/worldwide-glacier-retreat/.
49. ^ "First Americans". National Geographic society. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/02/070223-first-americans.htmll.
50. ^ "Jaguay and Tacahuay sites (Arequipa and Tacna, Peru)". Vantage World Travel. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text-Tacahuay/text-Tacahuay.htm.
51. ^ "Early North American Cultures". Minnesota State University. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/northamerica/culture/index.html.
52. ^ "Debert Palaeo-Indian Site". Nova Scotia Museum. http://museum.gov.ns.ca/arch/sites/debert/debert.htm.
53. ^ ^{a b c} "Lagoa Santa sites (Minas Gerais, Brazil)". Andaman Association. http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text-LagoaSanta/text-LagoaSanta.htm.
54. ^ "Oldest North American Mummy". Archaeological Institute of America. http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/nevada.htm.
55. ^ "On Your Knees Cave". Timothy H. Heaton. The University of South Dakota. 2002. http://orgs.usd.edu/esci/alaska/oykc.html. Retrieved 2009-11-21. "The American Journal of Physical Anthropolog reports new DNA-based research that links the DNA retrieved from a 10,000-year-old fossilized tooth from an Alaskan island, with specific coastal tribes in Tierra del Fuego, Ecuador, Mexico and California. Unique markers found in DNA recovered from the Alaskan tooth were found in these specific coastal tribes, and were rare in any of the other indigenous peoples in the Americas. This finding lends substantial credence to a migration theory that at least one set of early peoples moved south along the west coast of the Americas in boats. A previous study showed that mtDNA (human mitochondrial DNA) from indigenous populations in coastal British Columbia showed similarities to coastal populations in Southern California, while inland populations in both localities differed markedly. Dates of 9,730 and 9,880 years BP were obtained on the human remains, making them the oldest ever found in Alaska or Canada. The associated bone tool was dated to 10,300 years old"
56. ^ Custred, Glynn (2000). "The Forbidden Discovery of Kennewick Man". Academic Questions 13 (3): 12–30. doi:10.1007/s12129-000-1034-8.
57. ^ "America: 8000 to 5000 B.C.". Rice University. http://cnx.org/content/m17783/latest/.
58. ^ "A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups". Genome Research. 2002. pp. Vol. 12(2), 339–348. doi:10.1101/gr.217602. http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/12/2/339. Retrieved 2010-01-19. (Detailed hierarchical chart)
59. ^ ^{a b} Griffiths, Anthony J. F. (1999). An Introduction to genetic analysis. New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 071673771X. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=autosome&rid=iga.section.222. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
60. ^ ^{a b} "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. Genebase Tutorials" (Verbal tutorial possible). Genebase Systems. 2008. http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
61. ^ Orgel L (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world" (pdf). Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 39 (2): 99–123. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990. http://www.d.umn.edu/~pschoff/documents/OrgelRNAWorld.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
62. ^ "Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q". Genebase Systems. 2009. http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
63. ^ Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004). "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas". Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID 14595095.
64. ^ "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. 2000. doi:10.1086/303038. http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297%2807%2963257-1. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
65. ^ "The peopling of the New World - Perspectives from Molecular Anthropology". Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania. Annual Review of Anthropology. 2004. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143932. http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143932?journalCode=anthro. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
66. ^ "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations". Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. Genetics Society of America. Vol 130, 153-162. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/reprint/130/1/153. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
67. ^ Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling - Firestone et al. 104 (41): 16016 - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
68. ^ Fossilized human feces rewrite ancient history
69. ^ The Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chili, Volume II
70. ^ Stanford, Dennis, 2008, Lecture at Gustavus Adolphus College: "The Ice-Age Discovery of the Americas: Constructing an Iberian Solution" [1]
71. ^ Melanie Kuch, Darren R. Gröcke, Martin C. Knyf, M. Thomas P. Gilbert, Ban Younghusband, Terry Young, Ingeborg Marshall, Eske Willerslev , Mark Stoneking , Hendrik Poinar, "A preliminary analysis of the DNA and diet of the extinct Beothuk: A systematic approach to ancient human DNA" American Journal of Physical Anthropology Volume 132 Issue 4, Pages 594–604 [2]

Sources

• Dixon, E. James. Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. University of New Mexico Press. 1993.
• Dixon, E. James. Bones, Boats, and Bison: the Early Archeology of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press. 1993.
• Erlandson, Jon M. Early Hunter-Gatherers of the California Coast. Plenum Press. 1994.
• Erlandson, Jon M. The Archaeology of Aquatic Adaptations: Paradigms for a New Millennium. Journal of Archaeological Research, Vo. 9, 2001. pp. 287–350.
• Erlandson, Jon M. Anatomically Modern Humans, Maritime Migrations, and the Peopling of the New World. In The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, edited by N. Jablonski, 2002. pp. 59–92. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco.
• Erlandson, Jon. M., M. H. Graham, Bruce J. Bourque, Debra Corbett, James A. Estes, & R. S. Steneck. The Kelp Highway Hypothesis: Marine Ecology, The Coastal Migration Theory, and the Peopling of the Americas. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vo. 2, 2007. pp. 161–174.
• Jason A. Eshleman, Ripan S. Malhi, and David Glenn Smith, "Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas", Evolutionary Anthropology, 12:7–18 (2003)
• Fedje, & Christensen. Modeling Paleoshorelines and Locating Early Holocene Coastal Sites in Haida Gwaii. American Antiquity, Vol. 64, #4, 1999. pp. 635–652.
• E. F. Greenman, "The Upper Palaeolithic and the New World", Current Anthropology, 4: 41–66 (1963)
• Jody Hey, "On the Number of New World Founders: A Population Genetic Portrait of the Peopling of the Americas", Public Library of Science Biology, 3(6):e193 (2005).
• Jacobs, James Q. (2001). "The Paleoamericans: Issues and Evidence Relating to the Peopling of the New World". Anthropology and Archaeology Pages. jqjacobs.net. http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleoamericans.html. Retrieved 2007-06-17.
• Jacobs, James Q. (2002). "Paleoamerican Origins: A Review of Hypotheses and Evidence Relating to the Origins of the First Americans". Anthropology and Archaeology Pages. jqjacobs.net. http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/paleoamerican_origins.html. Retrieved 2006-06-17.
• Jones, Peter N. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Bauu Institute Press. 2005.
• Matson and Coupland. The Prehistory of the Northwest Coast. Academic Press. New York. 1995.
• Bradley, Michael, "The Black Discovery Of America: Amazing evidence of daring voyages by ancient West African mariners" Toronto, Canada: Personal Library Publishers, 1981 ISBN 0-920510-36-1.
• Adovasio, J. M., with Jake Page. The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology’s Greatest Mystery. New York: Random House, 2002.
• Bradley, B. and Stanford, D. "The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World." World Archaeology 34, 2004.
• Bradley, B. and Stanford, D. "The Solutrean-Clovis connection: reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel." World Archaeology 38, 2006.
• Lauber, Patricia. Who Came First? New Clues to Prehistoric Americans. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2003.
• Snow, Dean R. “The First Americans and the Differentiation of Hunter-Gatherer Cultures.” In Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb *E. Washburn, eds., The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume I: North America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 125-199.
• Jones, Peter N. "Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West." Boulder, CO: Bauu Press. 2004
• Dixon, E. James. Bones, Boats and Bison: the Early Archeology of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press. 1999.
• Evidence Supports Earlier Date for People in North America, April 4, 2008

Further reading

1. Gowlett, John. Ascent To Civilization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984.
2. Petit, Charles W. "Rediscovering America." U. S. News & World Report, October 12, 1998.
3. Fagan, Brian M. The Journey from Eden. London: Thames and Hudson, 1990.
4. Gilsen, Leland. "Pleistocene Adaptations." May 29, 1999. Oregon Archaeology: Prehistory. June 2, 2000 [1].
5. Beringia Research. Yukon Beringia Interpretative Centre. Dec. 7, 2000 [2].
6. Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson. Atlas of Ancient America. New York: Facts On File Publications, 1986.
7. Begley. Sharon and Andrew Murr. "The First Americans." Newsweek, April 26, 1999.
8. Roosevelt, A. C. et al. "Paleoindian Cave Dwellers in the Amazon: The Peopling of the Americas." Science, April 19, 1996.
9. Price, Douglas and Gary Feinmen, editors. "Monte Verde Early Hunter-Gatherers in South America." Images of the Past. 1997.
10. Surovell, Todd A. "Early Paleoindian Women, Children, Mobility, and Fertility." American Antiquity, 65 (3), 2000

External links

• Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (book) - by Spencer Wells - Princeton University Press, 2002 (Digitised online by Google Books), ISBN 0-8129-7146-9
• Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie) - by Spencer Wells - PBS and National Geographic Channel, 2003 - 120 Minutes, UPC/EAN: 841887001267
• Atlas of the Human Journey, Genographic Project, National Geographic
• An mtDNA view of the peopling of the world by Homo sapiens Cambridge DNA's
• Journey of Mankind - Genetic Map – Bradshaw Foundation
• The Paleoindian Period – United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service
• Alabama Archaeology: Prehistoric Alabama – The University of Alabama, Department of Archaeology
• The Paleoindian Database – The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology.
• Paleoindians and the Great Pleistocene Die-Off – American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Humanities Center

Categories: Human migration | Modern human genetic history | History of North America | History of Central America | History of South America | Indigenous peoples of the Americas | Recent single origin hypothesis | Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups | Peopling of the world

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